| Background and Reason Having defeated Hazrat Aisha at the Jang-e-Jamal (Battle of the Camel), Imam Ali(a.s.) returned from Basra to Kufa in Rajab of 36 A.H. (January 657). He decided to transfer the capital of his government to Kufa from Medina because it was more centrally placed in the Muslim Empire, and he could halt Muawiya’s progress into Iraq. However, Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib(a.s.) tried to settle matters peacefully by sending an envoy to Syria. He chose Jarir, who was the chief of Banu Bajila and governor of Hamdan. However, negotiations proved fruitless, and Muawiya's army pledged an oath that they would not wash or sleep a night at home, until the murderers of Uthman were brought to justice. Moreover, they also swore to bring to justice all those who sheltered the murderers - by which they (incorrectly) meant Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib(a.s.) and his followers. Seeing that war was inevitable, Imam Ali(a.s.) gathered his forces, and, after at first planning to invade Syria from the North, he attacked directly, marching through the Mesopotamian desert. Arriving at Riqqa, on the banks of the Euphrates, the Syrian vanguard was sighted, but it withdrew without engagement. The people of Riqqa were hostile to Imam Ali(a.s.), and his army had great difficulty crossing the river. Eventually the townspeople offered their co-operation. So, finally, the army managed to cross the river, by means of a bridge of boats. Imam Ali(a.s.)'s army then marched along the right bank of the Euphrates, until they came across the Syrian outpost of Sur al-Rum, where there was a brief skirmish, but Imam Ali(a.s.)'s advance was not slowed. So in ZilHijjah 36 A.H. (May 657), the army of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib(a.s.) came into sight of Muawiya’s main forces, which were encamped on the river plain at Siffin. Historian Yaqubi (2nd vol., p. 188) writes that Imam Ali(a.s.) had 80,000 men, including 70 Companions who participated in Badr, 70 Companions who took oath at Hudaibia, and 400 prominent Ansars and Muhajirs; while Muawiya had 120,000 Syrians. The fight for the River Muawiya had stationed his general, Amr ibn al-Aas, with 10,000 men on the river to stop Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib(a.s.)'s army having access to the water and to use water as a weapon. Imam Ali(a.s.) gave command of his army to the general Malik al-Ashtar, who led the attack; after heavy fighting, Amr's forces were dislodged from the river bank. Imam Ali(a.s.) immediately ordered that even though they had the control of the river, men from both sides would have free access to water saying "Our religion and ethical code does not permit us to stop water supply, and so pay our enemy back in his own coin. I do not want to follow the way of the ignorant people." . Imam Ali(a.s.) did not immediately press forward with his attack - instead, the two sides remained encamped facing each other for 110 days while attempts were made at a negotiated settlement. During this time, there were at least 90 skirmishes between tribal columns in the two armies, but no general battle. Muawiya refused to submit to Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib(a.s.) as Caliph until those complicit in Uthman's murder be brought to justice. Imam Ali(a.s.) offered to accept Muawiya's demand if he would point out the killers. Muawiya would not do so since he had gathered an army of 120,000 men on this pretext and he would not risk losing their loyalty if the matter was resolved so easily. Imam Ali(a.s.) could see that Muawiya was motivated by ambition. Imam Ali(a.s.)'s next step was, as usual, to try and come to a peaceful settlement. He deputed Bashir bin Amr, Sa'id bin Qais and Shabus bin Rabi, but Muawiya declined the offer to the delegates. Imm Ali(a.s.) still did not give up hope but a second delegation, consisting of Adi bin Hatim, Yazid bin Qais, Ziyad bin Hufza and Shabis bin Rad, also failed to persuade Muawiya to come to an amicable settlement. This period of negotiations lasted 110 days, during which time, the Arabian chroniclers maintain that Imam Ali(a.s.) made as many overtures for peace as there were days. There was much heat in the discussions with Muawiya, and finally Imam Ali(a.s.) was obliged once again to resort to arms on 8th Safar 36 A.H. (July 26, 657) The battle begins Imam Ali(a.s.) made one final demand for Muawiya's army to submit to him as Caliph, but they refused. As a result, on 1st or 8th Safar 37 A.H. (26 July 657) Imam Ali(a.s.) gave the order for a full attack, and the major part of the Battle of Siffin began. The battle lasted all day, and into the night which is known as laila'tul harir (the night of clangour). The fighting lulled a little in the darkness, but started again even more fiercely the following day. Despite his age (he was now 58) Imam Ali(a.s.) attacked personally with his Medinan troops in the centre, with his troops from Basra and Kufa on the flanks. Muawiya watched the battle from a pavilion on the field, surrounded by his Personal Guard. Amr ibn al-Aas led Muawiya's cavalry against the Kufa flank with great success, and almost broke through to kill Imam Ali(a.s.). However, Imam Ali(a.s.)'s personal bravery inspired his troops, and the attack was stalled. At the head of the Basra troops was al-Ashtar and 300 qaris (reciters of the Holy Quran), who led the assault on Muawiya's forces. The attack was quite successful, and almost drove Mu'awiyah from the field. The following morning, the battle started up again. Edward Gibbon writes in "The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire" (London, 1848, 3rd vol., p. 522) that, "The Caliph Ali displayed a superior character of valour and humanity. His troops were strictly enjoined to wait the first onset of the enemy, to spare their flying brethren, and to respect the bodies of the dead, and the chastity of the female captives. The ranks of the Syrians were broken by the charge of the hero, who was mounted on a piebald horse, and wielded with irresistable force, his ponderous and two edged sword." The fighting continued fiercely onto a third day, and casualties mounted, including Hashim ibn Utba and Ammar ibn Yasir, both Companions of the Prophet. Day after day the loss of lives increased, especially in the ranks of Muawiya. However, Imam Ali (A.S.) also lost several distinguished Companions of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W.) from his side. Ammar, who was 93 years old, had been informed by the Holy Prophet (sawaw) that he would die fighting rebels and enemies of Islam. This was well known by all, and when he died there was some commotion in Muawiya's army. He managed to quieten them down by saying that, since Ammar had been brought to fight by Imam Ali(a.s.), it was he who was the cause of his death. He said that Imam Ali(a.s.) therefore was the rebel that the prophecy talked about, and not Muawiya. This incredible argument was accepted by his men and war continued. Muawiya's Trick Both sides had by now ran out of ammunition for their quivers and so the battle was fought hand-to-hand. Both Imam Ali(a.s.) and Muawiya were unhappy at the heavy losses both sides were taking, but Muawiya was particularly dejected, believing that the battle would eventually be lost. Amr al-Aas suggested to Muawiya to accept Imam Ali(a.s.)'s offer of a single combat between the two leaders to resolve the battle without further bloodshed, but Muawiya was unwilling to do this. Both men were old but Imam Ali(a.s.) was still vigorous and almost certain to win such a duel against Muawiya, who was unfit and overweight. In Gibbon's words, "Ali generously proposed to save the blood of the Muslims by a single combat; but his trembling rival declined the challenge as a sentence of inevitable death.". But Muawiya did take Amr's second suggestion - he told his bodyguards to put pages from the Quran on their lances, and shout "The law of the Lord! That shall decide between us!" By this it was meant that the two sides should cease fighting and settle matters by peaceful arbitration under Islamic law. Muawiya and Amr did not necessarily think that all of Imam Ali(a.s.)'s army would accept an arbitration, but they were sure that some of them would favour this, and so at the least it would cause dissension in Imam Ali(a.s.)'s army. Muawiya's army raised 500 copies of the Holy Quran on spears and started chanting as planned. Several men in Imam Ali(a.s.)'s army quickly began chanting along with Muawiya's men. Imam Ali(a.s.) urged his army to fight on, saying that Muawiya was simply using a trick and was on the verge of defeat, but the soldiers did not listen. Imam Ali(a.s.) and al-Ashtar spent a long time arguing against their men, but they could not change their minds. In fact the soldiers became impatient and attacked al-Ashtar with whips, calling him a warmonger; they even threatened to send Imam Ali(a.s.) to Muawiya as a prisoner if he did not accept the arbitration. With his army in mutiny against him, Imam Ali(a.s.) had no choice but to accept the arbitration. Decision to Arbitrate Imam Ali(a.s.) wanted his Abdullah ibn Abbas or Malik al-Ashtar to represent him in the arbitration, but the army rejected these candidates. Al-Ashtar was a regicide, and so was implacably opposed to Muawiya, who would have had him executed. And Abdullah was Imam Ali(a.s.)'s close relation and so tied very closely to his cause. As a result, the soldiers feared that these men would advance Imam Ali(a.s.)'s claims too strongly and be unwilling to compromise - and so the war would continue. So Imam Ali(a.s.)'s men insisted that Abu Musa al-Ash'ari be chosen as the representative. Like most of the soldiers, Abu Musa was a Bedouin and thought to be truly committed to peace. However, he was of questionable loyalty to Imam Ali(a.s.) and had deserted him previously. Meanwhile, Muawiya appointed his general Amr al-Aas to represent him. Imam Ali(a.s.) retired to Kufa, Mu'awiyah to Damascus.Abu Musa had neither wit nor tact and was no match for the cunning Amr al-Aas The result of this was that although Imam Ali(a.s.) had got the better of the actual fighting, the result favoured Muawiya. Imam Ali(a.s.) had been denied him the choice of his own representative in the arbitration, and the peace treaty that Imam Ali(a.s.) signed did not recognise him as Caliph, but merely placed Imam Ali(a.s.) and Muawiya as equal combatants in a war. In addition, the arbitration was set for several months after the battle - had the arbitration been held immediately, Imam Ali(a.s.) could have resumed the battle if he was unhappy with the ruling. Revolt of the Kharjites Meanwhile Imam Ali(a.s.)'s followers now became divided; a group of 12,000 soldiers broke away from the main army, and instead camped at the nearby village of Harura. They took issue with the arbitration because they did not see it as proper under Islam. They said that the leadership of the Muslim world was not Imam Ali(a.s.)'s personal property to bargain over with Muawiya, as rival (secular) kings might - rather, their aim in overthrowing Uthman had been to establish a truly religious government. Imam Ali(a.s.) managed to pacify these soldiers and persuade them to rejoin his army, but it proved only temporary. These soldiers later became the core of the Kharijites (dissenters). Arbitration and Result While waiting for the arbitration, Muawiya ruled over Syria, Imam Ali(a.s.) over the rest of the Muslim Empire. In Ramadan 37 A.H. (February 658), the umpires arrived at Dumat-al-Jondel. Many a leading Chiefs from Mecca, Medina, Iraq and Syria went there to watch the proceedings, which were to decide the future of Islam. Abdullah bin Abbas, who accompanied Abu-Musa to preside at the daily prayers, while having a discourse with Abu-Musa upon the topic of arbitration, urged him to beware of the crafty ways of his astute colleague and to keep particularly in his mind the fact that Imam Ali(a.s.) had no blemish to render him incapable of government, nor Muawiya any virtue to qualify him for it. When Abu-Musa reached Duma, Amr bin Aas received him with great respect. A private conference was held between the two alone in a pavilion erected for the purpose. Amr was already well aware of the weaknesses in Abu-Musa's character. He treated Abu-Musa with utmost respect and civility till he brought him completely under his influence. Having won his confidence, he made him admit that Osman was foully murdered. Then he asked him why the avenger of his blood, a near relation of his and an able administrator viz. Muawiya should not be taken as his successor. To this Abu-Musa replied that the succession should not be determined on such a basis which would give preference to Osman's Sons as legitimate claimants; but that they must above all things take care lest a mutiny should be kindled or civil wars break again. Upon this Amr bin Aas asked Abu-Musa to reject both Ali and Muawiya, and let the Faithful elect a third. This is the simplest and safest solution of the problem. 'I agree,' said Abu-Musa, let us go forth to pronounce. A tribunal was erected from which each of the umpires was to declare publicly his decision. Abu-Musa wished Amr to go up first, but Amr, alleging reasons to give preference to Ali's man, overcame all his scruples and insisted upon Abu-Musa going up first. Abu-Musa ascended and addressed the people thus: 'Brethren! I and Amr bin Aas, both of us, have given full consideration to the matter and have come to the conclusion that no other course to restore peace and to remove discord from the people can possibly be better than to depose both Ali and Muawiya in order that people may have their choice of a better man in their stead. I therefore depose both Ali and Muawiya from the Caliphate to which they pretend, in the manner as I draw this ring from my finger.' Having made this declaration Abu-Musa came down. Amr bin Aas now took his turn and went up to announce what he had to declare. 'You have heard,' he said, 'how Abu-Musa on his part has deposed his chief Ali; I, on my part, do depose him too and I invest my chief Muawiya with the Caliphate and I confirm him to it, as I put this ring upon my finger. I do this with justice because Muawiya is the avenger of Osman and his rightful successor.' So saying, he came down.There are differing accounts of the arbitration. It seems that Abu Musa al-Ash'ari said that both Muawiya and Imam Ali(a.s.) should abandon their claims, and a new shura be held to choose the Caliph; Amr ibn al-Aas said that Muawiya should simply be recognised as Caliph. At any rate the arbitration was indecisive, and the situation continued as before, with Muawiya ruling over Syria and later Egypt, and Imam Ali(a.s.) ruling the rest of the Muslim territories. Imam Ali(a.s.) continued to be recognized as Caliph, Muawiya did not claim the title openly but continued to conspire, no new shura held, and both sides remained hostile to each other. Imam Ali(a.s.) lost 25,000 of his companions and 45,000 of Muawiya’s men were killed. This uneasy situation continued until Imam Ali(a.s.) was assassinated by the Kharijites in 40 A.H. (661 AD). |
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